"Designing for the Seen, Unseen, and Unspoken"
My curricular theory begins with my past experiences
Over the past year, I have been developing a comprehensive “grand tour” theory of adult learning and instructional design in today’s corporate environments. Like any theory, it’s a work in progress that I have contemplated for a long time—really, a long time, spanning more than 35 years.
Recently, my colleague Kathleen Volk has been interviewing potential instructional design candidates for a position at her company. She was tasked with asking candidates how they apply adult learning theory to inform their development and design of training programs. It’s a valuable question, and it prompted me to consider how I would respond.
When I design training for software engineers, technicians, and customer support professionals, I don’t have a script running in the back of my mind that includes theories from Gagne, Knowles, or Kolb. In fact, I have some disagreements with Malcolm Knowles regarding his construction of the term “andragogy.” I prefer to use the term “pedagogy,” viewing it as an inclusive concept that I define as “the relationship between the one who knows and the one who needs to know.” Beyond aspects such as lifespan and experience, I believe that all humans, regardless of age, share similar cognitive tasks, motivations, and needs.
Over the past 35 years, I have studied how people learn and the conditions that facilitate that learning, which has led me to develop my theory of instructional design. This theory is based on my initial theory building in adult literacy, which I developed while teaching developmental reading to first-year college students. Most recently, I have expanded it to include my learning about UX design, web design, and eLearning design.
Effective instructional design focuses on creating training programs that people can easily understand, including not only the text itself but also the visual literacy necessary for effective learning during presentations or in an eLearning environment.
To be successful, instructional design for adult learners must be built on two main pillars: the visible features that are apparent in the materials themselves, and the invisible features that exist in the learner’s mind. Both must be intentionally designed. However, there is much more to explore once we delve deeper into philosophy and curriculum theory.
I understand that Knowles’ concept of Andragogy, which originated in Europe, is still relevant today for academic departments focused on adult learning and on-the-job training. It highlights the differences between adult learning needs and traditional educational approaches for younger students.
Our understanding of cognition has shown that people of all ages have both unique and shared ways of learning. Everyone requires experience to be at the core of their learning, and we all seek transformation through it, regardless of our backgrounds.
One aspect I find concerning is the scarcity of female theorists in adult learning. The predominant figures in this field tend to be male. In the latter part of this article, I will discuss the absence of women’s research and voices among historical theorists and adult educators.
Malcolm Knowles - 1968
David Kolb - 1970's
Jack Mezirow - 1978
Robert Mills Gagne - 1965
Lev Vygotsky - 1920-1930's
All the current theories seemed disconnected.
What I wanted to express was a curricular theory that encompassed all of the elements of instructional design and adult learning.
It was a way of contemplating the "goodness" in an interdisciplinary field that felt disconnected.
Imagine the structure of this “grand tour theory” as a three-dimensional cube. One side presents the visible features that learners can see on a page or screen. The second side is more intricate, encompassing all the invisible elements that we cannot observe. Finally, the third space resembles the hidden curriculum, representing the aspects that remain unaddressed or null.
The visible features of instructional design
Visual Elements of Design
- Graphic Design
- Typography
- UX/UI Design
Written Text
- Vocabulary
- Text Structures
- Cause and Effect
- Compare/Contrast
- Dramatic
- Problem Solving
- Description
- Problem and Solution
- Syntax
Visual Elements of Design
The first consideration is the visual elements that instructional designers use to communicate ideas, stories, and animations. Here, the research and science behind graphic design come into play—everything from color, shape, placement, balance, contrast, and size. Visual communication is a critical component of today’s learning experience design.
Written Discourse
The second crucial factor to consider is the quality of the written text itself. Although instructional designers may not be aware of the skills and automaticity needed to comprehend a piece of text, it is imperative to emphasize the importance of text complexity, organization, and linguistic structures. This involves a comprehensive evaluation of several key components, including the richness and appropriateness of the vocabulary employed, which must resonate with the reading abilities of the intended audience.
Furthermore, the structure of the text should not only be clear and logical but also aligned with its overarching purpose. For instance, if the goal is to illuminate a specific problem, a well-defined problem-solution framework is essential. It’s worth mentioning that good expository prose encompasses a variety of text structures that can seamlessly transition from one to another. Skilled readers, adept at navigating these diverse structures, can effortlessly make sense of the content. In contrast, less-skilled readers often find themselves challenged by shifts in structure, which can hinder their understanding.
Additionally, careful consideration should be given to the intricacy of the sentences. Striking the right balance is vital; sentences that are either overly complex or excessively simplistic can diminish the reader’s experience. Achieving this balance not only fosters effective comprehension but also enhances engagement among learners, making the reading experience both enlightening and enjoyable.
The invisible features of instructional design
Prior Knowledge
- Prior experience with the content
- Prior experience with the text
- Relatable experience from a near context
Intertextuality
- Connections or insights from the graphics
- Connections within the text
- Connections with the self
- Connections to the world
Motivation and Engagement
- Self-efficacy
- Values
- Interests
- Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
- Effects of choice
- Goal-driven
- Growth vs fixed mindset
- Cognitive load
Metacognition
- Heuristics
- Cognitive tasks
- Personal awareness
Background Knowledge
How much prior knowledge a person has with the content being taught matters. When an individual has limited exposure to the material, it often requires significantly more time and energy to grasp the knowledge and skills being taught. The greater the background knowledge, the quicker the learner will learn new knowledge and skills. Assessing the learner’s prior familiarity with the text is crucial. This includes evaluating their understanding of the language and discourse used, as well as their comfort with the specific vocabulary and sentence structures.
I am particularly interested in determining how relatable the content is to the learner’s past experiences. Does the material resonate with them personally, even if the context is not identical? It’s essential for IDs to either tap into the learner’s prior knowledge or provide the necessary background knowledge needed to comprehend the content. Understanding these connections can enhance the learning process, as familiar experiences often serve as valuable reference points, making new information easier to learn and retain.
Intertextuality
Let’s say you are reading a book that contains lots of images, large and small headings that denote section topics, and texts in varying expository prose. How do you use all of that content to make sense of what you are learning? Do you look at a picture, read the caption, and then read bits of the text? Do you turn the pages, going back to a previous image or section of text, and look at it or re-read it? If you do these, which all good readers do, then you are making use of intertextuality.
Intertextuality is the connective tissue that binds what you are reading together. I define reading as making meaning from print, whether it be pictures, words, or both. Typically, it’s both, especially when you’re learning new on-the-job skills or being onboarded at a new job.
Intertextuality also involves connecting what you are learning to other texts and images. Perhaps you read a book about this topic several years ago. Or maybe you saw a video about how to serve people in a fine-dining restaurant that reminds you of the training material you’re learning. Whatever the learning event, intertextuality is about making connections between texts, the self, and the larger world.
Engagement and Motivation
Engagement and motivation are pivotal elements of adult learning theory that have been thoroughly researched over the years. One of the foundational figures in this field, Albert Bandura, conducted early studies on self-efficacy, which explores the belief in one’s ability to succeed. This belief is fundamentally linked to motivation, behavior, and achievement. Although often subtle and difficult to measure, engagement and motivation significantly influence whether learners achieve their educational aspirations or struggle to do so.
To capture and maintain learners’ interest, the participants must perceive the content and design of any learning event as valuable. When learners recognize the relevance of the material to their personal or professional lives, they are more likely to invest their time and energy into the learning process. Instructional designers frequently grapple with the pivotal question: “What’s in it for me?” (WIIFM). Addressing this question goes beyond acknowledging extrinsic motivations, such as the prospect of a promotion or an enhanced job title; it requires uncovering and emphasizing the learning experience’s intrinsic value, which can foster a deeper connection to the material.
Moreover, how a learner approaches a learning event is often influenced by their mindset, particularly whether they possess a fixed or growth mindset. A learner adopting a fixed mindset may enter a training session with a sense of complacency, believing they have nothing new to learn and that the training will be ineffective for them. In contrast, a learner with a growth mindset recognizes potential opportunities for personal and professional development, approaching the experience with curiosity and openness.
Regardless of their mindset upon arrival, learners may quickly become overwhelmed and disengaged if the content presented is overly dense or intellectually demanding. Therefore, it is imperative for instructional designers to thoughtfully consider the amount of content delivered in any learning environment. Presenting too much information can result in cognitive overload, leading to learner shutdown, while providing too little can induce boredom and disinterest. Striking the right balance between engagement and cognitive load is a delicate yet essential task that can significantly impact the effectiveness of the learning experience. At its core is achieving that state of flow where the learner disappears from the “real world” and is immersed in the learning event, balancing between anxiety and boredom.
Metacognition
Recently, it has become increasingly clear that metacognition—the awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes—plays a vital role in how effectively adults acquire and develop new skills and knowledge. Researchers and educators are uncovering fascinating insights into how soft skills, which I refer to as professional skills, intertwine with technical or complex skills, revealing a dynamic interplay between these essential skill sets. Metacognition plays a critical role in acquiring new professional and technical skills.
Instructional designers are called to examine this relationship closely, diligently paying attention not only to how individuals employ various heuristics—such as practical shortcuts like job aids, handbooks, diagrams, and scripts or time-honored “rules of thumb”—but also to the cognitive strategies learners utilize when considering how to apply these tools. This involves a deeper understanding of the strategic knowledge that guides individuals on when to use these heuristics and when to rely on their intuition or experience instead.
For instance, many of us have a lot of experience when it comes to taking multiple-choice tests. When we encounter such a format, we instinctively understand the best approach to tackle the questions, drawing on our past encounters. This phenomenon is equally true for other professions: mechanics rely on their hands-on experience, engineers utilize their technical training, sales personnel draw on interpersonal skills, and stockbrokers navigate the complexities of the market with confidence. When confronted with a familiar task, these professionals seamlessly draw from their accumulated experiences to address challenges swiftly and effectively, often leading to successful outcomes.
Furthermore, metacognitive knowledge extends beyond mere task execution; it encompasses a profound awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses. Learners who harness this metacognitive insight possess a clear understanding of their knowledge levels and capabilities. They can engage in meaningful self-assessment, approaching tasks with either a sense of confidence or a natural trepidation, depending on their familiarity and preparedness for the challenge at hand. This self-awareness not only guides their learning journey but also enhances their ability to adapt and thrive in varied contexts.
The Unspoken features of instructional design
Beyond what is seen and even felt, lies a third layer - what is not acknowledged.
These features of the learning experience are designed around omission: the null, the unspoken, the hidden in the shadows curriculum. In this liminal space lie our blind spots—and our opportunity for transformation.
This third feature presents our most significant challenge because it extends beyond what we observe or experience in our instructional designs. This “third space” symbolizes what is unspoken—the null or the void. It is akin to the hidden curriculum concept, which encompasses the norms, values, and beliefs we acquire through social and cultural interactions, but goes deeper into ethically courageous layers. This dimension revolves around ideas of power, privilege, and prestige. Numerous curriculum theorists, such as Phillip Jackson, who coined the term “hidden curriculum” in his book *Life in the Classroom*; Elliot Eisner, who highlighted the lack of arts education in schools; bell hooks, who challenged issues of power, racism, sexism, and oppression; and Joel Spring, who described K-12 education as a social sorting mechanism, with countless others have thoroughly explored this frontier within our educational institutions. Instructional designers for adult learning see similar issues in our professional and civic environments.
We must acknowledge the topics, content areas, and skills that we avoid addressing due to fears of retribution or exclusion from our peers and social groups. Skills related to professional behavior, interactions with colleagues, and workplace conduct have become hot topics in corporate training. It could also be argued that adult education and training have historically filled the gaps left by formal education, teaching life skills that many assumed adults would learn independently. However, the concept of “adulting” seems to have gained traction, especially as college preparation and vocational training took precedence.
Currently, discussions surrounding Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) or Diversity, Equity, Belonging (DEB) are fraught with strong opinions. So is the role of Artificial Intelligence in training development. My intention here is not to create divisions or attempt to resolve debates—there is certainly enough room on both sides for these conversations. Instead, I aim to highlight an overlooked and unexplored area in adult learning and instructional design theory—an aspect of our work that we may be unaware of or hesitant to explore due to issues of power, privilege, or prestige.
In this section, I will discuss four themes relevant to contemporary curricular considerations. I recognize that I may overlook some important topics—my apologies in advance. Let’s all agree that to be human is to err.
Sociocultural Assumptions
Through this lens, the visible features of instructional design ask us to consider the reading level of the content, showing images of people of differing races, genders, cultures, and sexual orientations, and how those images reinforce or challenge the dominant colonial narratives of power and privilege. The invisible features of instructional design ask us to consider how the visible features motivate, engage, and support learning. This also taps into our prior experiences with differing sociocultural backgrounds and positions of power presented to us. Other considerations include assumptions about cultural norms, such as how older learners may not know the appropriate terms for various ethnicities, gender identities, and cultural references.
Furthermore, let’s consider this question: What can I not do on my own without the help of others? It was Lev Vygotsky who helped us better understand the cultural role of social interactions and the cultural contexts of learners. We are humanoids. We need social interaction to learn new things from each other. My learning is better when I am in the company of people different from me, with varying ways of seeing and knowing the world. I cannot fully understand that on my own. People of various ethnic and racial backgrounds help me understand different perspectives. People who think differently from me help me see how others solve problems and come to know things. None of these can I truly know on my own.
As instructional designers, we must consider the sociocultural assumptions we build into our learning experience designs.
Psychological Considerations
This theme uncovers the complex psychological forces that lie beneath the surface of our instructional designs. Deep-seated emotions such as trauma, shame, and fear are intricately intertwined with the often-invisible elements of instructional design. Learners frequently grapple with the anxiety and embarrassment stemming from their struggles to read or comprehend the material, as well as the fear of being labeled as unintelligent or “not smart enough” to grasp the content at hand. This concern becomes particularly critical when we craft courses for clinical practice, human interactions, health and human services, and sensitive topics like sexual harassment, which may evoke powerful and distressing psychological reactions.
Furthermore, we must also reflect on the content that is frequently overlooked or deliberately avoided. It is rare for these educational programs to address the nuances of same-sex sexual harassment—situations in which individuals experience unwanted sexual advances or actions from others of the same sex or gender. For the most part, these trainings tend to adhere to a heteronormative perspective, often neglecting to present real-world cases and scenarios that involve same-sex harassment. By failing to include these vital topics, we miss the opportunity to create a more inclusive and empathetic educational environment for all learners.
Cognitive and Physical Abilities
Much work has been done in the areas of eLearning, virtual instructor-led training (vILT), face-to-face training (f2f), and accessibility. User experience designers are concerned with how individuals with varying cognitive and physical abilities interact with and use technology. Some tools and recommendations help designers adhere to accessibility standards. Age is an area that often gets overlooked. Older individuals may have memory decline, lack prior experience with the technology, or have weakening fine motor skills needed to navigate eLearning courses.
Technical and Structural Silences
As society plunges deeper into the vast expanse of the digital realm, individuals with limited access to technology find themselves at a considerable disadvantage. The landscape of technology is not only expensive but also evolves at a dizzying pace, presenting formidable challenges for those in remote, underserved areas. For many from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, the reality is that they often lack essential devices such as tablets or laptops, relying heavily on their smartphones for accessing vital job training, educational resources, and the internet. Compounding this issue is the scarcity of reliable Wi-Fi and high-bandwidth options, which poses a significant barrier for economically disadvantaged individuals who cannot afford unlimited cellular service plans.
Moreover, an additional layer of complexity arises from the power dynamics prevalent in the workplace. Many employees contend with the fear of being labeled as failures due to their lack of access to the latest technology or their inability to carve out time—often burdened by the demands of juggling multiple jobs or family responsibilities—to complete course materials outside of work hours. I have witnessed countless instances where employees are expected to finish “homework” assignments prior to attending mandatory training sessions held during official working hours, creating an environment that can feel both overwhelming and inequitable.
The Holistic Designer
My attempt to flesh out my all-inclusive instructional design theory calls for a new way of thinking about who we are as instructional designers. I believe we are practitioners who are more holistic designers. This kind if ID must recognize, design for and balance all three distinct but interconnected domains:
- The Seen
- The Unseen
- The Unspoken
This approach isn’t just a design mindset—it’s a paradigm shift. It means we are not just conveyors of content but advocates for learning experiences. We are curriculum makers, not mere curriculum implementers of what our subject matter experts (SMEs) tell us to incorporate into a course.
Designing for the Seen: Mastering the surface elements
The visible elements are the most straightforward. They are observable, measurable, and interactable aspects of your design. The mindset of the holistic instructional designer is that they recognize that the visible elements are the entry point for learner engagement. They ensure the design is not just beautiful but functional and purposeful. They iterate on visual design, recognizing that clarity, simplicity, and accessibility are vital.
Designing for the Unseen: Mastering the psychological dimension
The invisible features are cognitive, emotional, and experiential aspects of learning that exist within the learner’s mind and influence their experience of the content. The mindset of the designer is to view learning as a process of meaning-making, not just information delivery. They design for emotion and cognition, ensuring that learner’s not only access content but internalize and connect with it. They are aware that a learner’s personal context (cultural, emotional, cognitive) is a key determinant of success.
Designing for the Unspoken: Navigating the courageous layer
The unspoken dimension is where holistic designers truly differentiate themselves from the technicians. These are the difficult cultural, ethical, and cognitive realities that often go ignored or avoided in training design. The holistic designer takes on the mantle of courage to recognize and address their own biases in design. They advocate for learners whose needs may not be visible, such as literacy challenges, cultural differences or cognitive disabilities. They use feedback and continuous improvement to challenge what is often ignored.
Balancing All Dimensions
We are not just crafting attractive slides or well-structured texts. We are strategic, an advocate, and a cognitive psychologists who:
- Designs beautifully but with purpose
- Designs empathically but with insights
- Designs courageously but with ethical clarity.
In practice, this means we must regularly update our skills, understanding, and biases on UX/UI design, graphic design, learning/ cognitive research, and socially responsive practices. We must review and audit existing training to identify any blind spots or missing perspectives. We must hone our learner-centered design skills where learners are not just passively receiving content, but actively using it to improve their lives. And, we must seek feedback from diverse voices, including marginalized or underrepresent groups.
Instructional design is not just a craft of what can be seen or measured. It is an art and science of creating the visible, accounting for the invisible, and being courageous enough to confront the unspoken.
The true power of learning lies not in what is presented to us, but in the impact it makes on humanity.
I’d love to hear your thoughts on whether this resonates with you. Let’s open the circle and share our understanding of this deeply complex and often disconnected profession.
Recent Comments